Overhead factor* accounts for real-world slowdowns: acceleration/decelleration, jump moves, polygon delays, laser on/off timing, overscan, bidirectional settle time, and controller latency. Typical values: Vector cuts/marks 1.05–1.15 (simple paths, long runs closer to 1.05; tiny segments or lots of jumps closer to 1.15). Raster engraving 1.10–1.40 (lower DPI and long sweeps near 1.10; very high DPI or short scan width near 1.30–1.40). Galvo systems often have lower overhead at small sizes; gantry systems tend to have higher overhead at high DPI/short strokes.